In "Morality Does Not Require Religion," I argued that morality is primarily a function of a person's conduct, not of any specific ideology he claims to hold. I posited that moral conduct can be separated into three tiers, with each subsequent tier dependent on the prior ones:
Tier 1: Non-aggression against others
Tier 2: Non-damage to self
Tier 3: Civility and integrity
In consistency with the non-aggression principle, only violations of the first tier of morality ought to be punished by force of law. Violations of the second and third tiers, while immoral, ought to be legally permissible and addressed by other, non-coercive means.
Following a discussion of what morality is, an important practical question arises: how can we bring about more morality and less immorality on all three tiers? To act morally or immorally is ultimately an individual choice, and no number of external factors, however powerful, can completely determine that choice. Even a Nazi concentration camp guard-raised solely on anti-Semitic ideology-had the choice to disobey his orders to torture and kill innocent human beings; hence, he is rightly held morally responsible if he acted on those orders. However, a number of external factors can increase or decrease an individual's incentives to choose a moral life over an immoral one. Ceteris paribus, an individual will purchase more of a good at a lower price than at a higher price. Similarly, ceteris paribus, an individual will tend to act more morally in the face of greater incentives to do so than he would in the face of lesser ones. Except for protecting individual rights against the initiation of force, it is not the direct function of government to bring about increased morality. Where, then, does one start putting such incentives in place?
Every reader of this article is an individual who, in his personal conduct, can choose to be moral or immoral. The best place to start in advancing moral conduct is with oneself. As such, it is essential to analyze the variety of personal incentives in place for moral behavior on all three tiers.
Personal Incentives on the First Tier of Morality
Tier 1: Non-aggression against others
Tier 2: Non-damage to self
Tier 3: Civility and integrity
In consistency with the non-aggression principle, only violations of the first tier of morality ought to be punished by force of law. Violations of the second and third tiers, while immoral, ought to be legally permissible and addressed by other, non-coercive means.
Following a discussion of what morality is, an important practical question arises: how can we bring about more morality and less immorality on all three tiers? To act morally or immorally is ultimately an individual choice, and no number of external factors, however powerful, can completely determine that choice. Even a Nazi concentration camp guard-raised solely on anti-Semitic ideology-had the choice to disobey his orders to torture and kill innocent human beings; hence, he is rightly held morally responsible if he acted on those orders. However, a number of external factors can increase or decrease an individual's incentives to choose a moral life over an immoral one. Ceteris paribus, an individual will purchase more of a good at a lower price than at a higher price. Similarly, ceteris paribus, an individual will tend to act more morally in the face of greater incentives to do so than he would in the face of lesser ones. Except for protecting individual rights against the initiation of force, it is not the direct function of government to bring about increased morality. Where, then, does one start putting such incentives in place?
Every reader of this article is an individual who, in his personal conduct, can choose to be moral or immoral. The best place to start in advancing moral conduct is with oneself. As such, it is essential to analyze the variety of personal incentives in place for moral behavior on all three tiers.
Personal Incentives on the First Tier of Morality
John D. Rockefeller and Andrew Carnegie used their own funds establish a vast network of colleges, libraries, charities, and museums before the government ever began meddling with these institutions.
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